Sarajevo, Bosnia, Serbia, ethnic cleansing, detention camps—these are exotic names and frightening concepts that until recently were virtually unknown to the American public. Now they have become household words as the media reports on a daily basis about the bombing of Sarajevo, the killings and rapes throughout Bosnia, and the on-going suffering of all the peoples in the ethnically-complex country once known as Yugoslavia.

Rusyns, too, live within the boundaries of the former Yugoslavia, and the military conflict has struck them directly and indirectly. Ironically, of all the Rusyns in Europe, it was those living in Yugoslavia who in the second half of the twentieth century enjoyed the best conditions for national and cultural development. Since the Revolution of 1989, however, the situation has been reversed: Rusyns in the Carpathian homeland (Ukraine, Slovakia, Poland) are enjoying more freedom to develop than ever before, while those in former Yugoslavia are seeing all their achievements undermined by financial cutbacks or physical annihilation. But how did such a situation come about?

When Yugoslavia was reconstituted after World War II, its new Communist government led by war hero, Marshal Josef Tito, tried to resolve inter-ethnic conflict by dividing the country into six national republics (Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Hercegovina, Serbia, Montenegro. Macedonia) and by providing liberal support and legal protection for all national minorities wherever they lived. Aside from the six national republics, two autonomous regions within Serbia—the Vojvodina in the north and Kosovo-Metohija in the south—were in 1974 given considerable political autonomy and a status equal to the republics in the federal government. Kosovo was inhabited primarily by Albanians; the Vojvodina included an incredible mixture of peoples from all over East Central Europe. Five of the Vojvodina's peoples were given the status of official nationalities—Serbs, Magyars, Romanians, Slovaks, and Rusyns—the rest were classified as national minorities.

The Rusyn presence in the Vojvodina dates back to the 1740s, when immigrants from the Carpathian homeland (mostly from southern Zemplyn and Ung counties in eastern Slovakia) began to arrive on the fertile plains along the Danube River. They settled both east and south of the Danube in the Backa and Srem counties of what was then the southern frontier region of the Hungarian Kingdom. Their main settlement was in Ruski Krstur, which to this day is inhabited almost exclusively by Rusyns. Both the Backa and Srem became part of the Vojvodina when, in 1918, the whole area was incorporated into the new state of Yugoslavia.

After World War II., when Yugoslavia was transformed into a federal republic, most of the Vojvodina was made part of Serbia, but the western Srem which included some Rusyn settlements became part of Croatia. By the 1970s, there were about 5,000 Rusyns in Croatia, specifically in the city of Vukovar and surrounding villages to the immediate southeast. Thus, the Rusyns of former Yugoslavia lived in two of its constituent republics: about 25,000 lived in Serbia's autonomous province of the Vojvodina; the remainder lived in far eastern Croatia. The legal status of the two groups differed, however. In the Vojvodina, Rusyns were an official nationality; in Croatia, they were only a national minority.

But how did today's crisis come about and how has it effected the Rusyns? The Yugoslav governmental system left by Tito, with its six republics and two autonomous regions, was intended to provide a system of checks and balances so that no one republic would be able to play a dominant role in the country as a whole. This delicate balance was upset in 1990, when Serbia unilaterally abolished the autonomous status of Kosovo and then of the Vojvodina. This move alarmed the other republics, most especially Croatia and Slovenia, who feared Serbia would become too strong within the Yugoslav federation. The result was a political conflict over the future of Yugoslavia which ended with declarations of independence by Slovenia (June 1991), Croatia (June 1991), Bosnia-Hercegovina (February 1992), and Macedonia. The Serbs continued to hold on to the idea and name, Yugoslavia, although at present it comprises only Serbia (with the Vojvodina and Kosovo) and Montenegro.

For the first time in their 250-year-old history, the Rusyns along the Danube found themselves divided by an international border between two states—Yugoslavia (that is, Serbia) and Croatia. Even worse, when war broke out between Yugoslavia (Serbia) and Croatia in the summer of 1991, Rusyns from Serbia were mobilized and sent to fight their brethren in Croatia. Moreover, one of the main theaters of the conflict was eastern Slavonia and the western Srem, precisely where Croatia's Rusyns live. The Rusyn-language publishing house in Vukovar (which had published the magazine Nova durnka) was destroyed along with most of that city, and the surrounding villages were attacked by the opposing forces of Yugoslavia (Serbia) and Croatia. To this day, all of Croatia east of Osijek is controlled by Serbian forces, and an uneasy truce is maintained by United Nations troops. At the height of the conflict, however, Croatia's Rusyn minority was caught between the proverbial hammer and anvil, often assumed by one side to be cooperating with the other.

Whereas the larger group of Rusyns in Serbia's Vojvodina were not touched directly by military attack, they are nonetheless in a precarious position. With the abolition of the autonomous province of the Vojvodina, it is not clear what legal status is left for Rusyns. Also, in an atmosphere of xenophobic nationalism, it is not likely that the new Yugoslavia (Serbia-Montenegro) will be as favorably inclined toward its various nationalities and national minorities as was the old. These concerns are addressed at greater length by a Rusyn from the Vojvodina in an article, "The Destiny of Rusyns Along the Danube," written especially for this issue of the Carpatho-Rusyn American.

Paul Robert Magocsi Toronto, Canada

War in the former Yugoslavia has frightened and made life difficult for the Vojvodinian Rusyns. On the Croatian side of the Danube many Rusyn families have been forcibly driven from their homes. On the Serbian side of the Danube these are also hard times for Rusyn culture. Times were even worse during World War II. Rusyns deserve better.

While new international boundaries in former Yugoslavia may divide Vojvodina's Rusyns, the Danube does not. The Danube has become the symbol of the resilience and destiny of the Rusyns. They have always crossed the river. Rusyn settlements sprang up not far from the Danube: Ruski Krstur (in Rusyn: Ruskyj Kerestur), Kucura, Djurdjevo, Sid, Bacinci, Petrovci, Mikiosevci, Piskurevci, and others. Closer to the Danube or along its shores are cities to which Rusyns have moved: Novi Sad, Vukovar, Sombor, and Osijek.

Mighty 250-Year-Old Rusyn Trees

In the middle of the eighteenth century, one group of Rusyns migrated to the Backa. a geographic region at the southern end of the Pannonian Plain located between the Danube and Tysa Rivers. The first Rusyn settlements were built in this region among Serb, Magyar, and German villages. At the very beginning of the nineteenth century, new Rusyn settlements were founded on the southern side of the Danube, in an area known as the Srem. Some Rusyns from the Backa migrated to Srem, while others came directly from the Carpathian Mountains.

During the last 250 years, the Vojvodinian Rusyns have prospered. They now number in excess of thirty thousand. Ever since 1751, they have educated their children in the Rusyn language. Today there is a Chair of Rusyn Studies at the University of Novi Sad. Rusyns have their own literature. The first book published in the Rusyn language appeared in 1904. Newspapers have been published in the Rusyn language since 1924. The Rusyn language has been used in the region of Vojvodina both in politics and administration since 1974. The Greek Catholic eparchy of Krizevci was established in 1777. and Rusyns form the largest community in the eparchy. The oldest Rusyn cultural institutions are the libraries (1876), and there is a rich musical and theatrical heritage dating back to the end of the nineteenth century.

There are many highly educated persons among the Rusyn population, including professors in Belgrade, Novi Sad, Zagreb, and other universities all over the world. Rusyns are skilled in medicine, engineering, and agriculture, and they have many lawyers and journalists. There have been some Rusyns in the Yugoslav government and diplomatic service, and six bishops of Rusyn background: Dionizij Njaradi, Gavrijil Bukatko, Dr. Augustin Hornyak, Dr. Joachim Segedi, Dr. Joachim Herbut, and Slavomir Mikios. Dr. Vladimir Kanjuh, who is a member of the Serbian Academy of Science and Arts, is of Rusyn background as is the well-known Serbian painter Steven Bodnarov.

Some actors in the Serbian National Theatres in Novi Sad, in the National Theatre in Vrsac, and in the Children's Theatre in Sarajevo were of Rusyn background. Yugoslav movie star Juliana Medjesi's father is of Rusyn background from Srem. The composer Ivan Kovac, who was a professor at the Music Academy in Novi Sad and Secretary of the Yugoslavian Society of Composers, was a Rusyn. Approximately twenty Rusyn writers were elected as members of the Writers Society of Yugoslavia. At one time the director of radio broadcasters in Novi Sad was a Rusyn. A Rusyn has been director of the Ruske Slovo publishing house since its establishment in 1945.

Winds of War

The internal strife and open warfare since 1991 in former Yugoslavia has brought misfortune to the Rusyn people. Even prior to the war, Rusyns were victims in the Serbian-Croatian conflict. It is still not known how many Rusyns have died, how many were expelled from their homes, how many have fled, or the extent of material losses. Also unclear is what will be the fate of Rusyn community along the Danube. The conflict between Serbs and Croats became visible at the beginning of 1991 during republic and local level elections in Croatia. Nonetheless, people did not believe that war was possible.

The Croats were organized into the Croatian Democratic Union (Hrvatska Demokratska Zajednica) and the Serbs into the Serbian Democratic party (Srpska Demokratska Stranka). These organizations represented ethnonational rather than political divisions. Rusyns in the Osijek district of Croatia, where Vukovar and two Rusyn villages are located, took a neutral stand in the struggle, but they were not able to maintain that position for long. Croats won the election and founded the Croatian National Guard, which was stationed around villages and fields. Rusyns were drafted into the new National Guard.

Open war between Croats and Serbs began in the summer of 1991. By then, Rusyns in the Vojvodina were drafted into the Yugoslav army (under Serbian control). Thus, Rusyns found themselves within two opposing armies that were soon to be at war with each other. It should be noted, however, that a few Rusyns voluntarily joined both the Croatian and Serbian forces.

The greatest Rusyn losses took place during the battle for Vukovar. The majority of Rusyn deaths, however, were civilian not military. During the battle, many Rusyns fled to other parts of Croatia or to the neighboring Vojvodina in Serbia. Others fled to western Europe, North America, and Australia. The result is the following. In 1991, before the outbreak of war, there were 3,023 Rusyns officially recorded in the Osijek district. Today there are almost none. This includes Vukovar, where before the war Rusyns were one of the largest national minorities.

After the Serbs took control of the Vukovar region, Rusyns who had previously fled their homes were barred from returning if any family member had supported the Croats. This meant anyone who had fought with the Croatian army, sympathized with the Croats, or was of Croatian nationality. As for those Rusyn families who managed to remain in their homes, any family member who had sympathized with the Croats was expelled. This occurred not only in Vukovar, but also in the nearby Rusyn villages of Mikiosevci and Petrovci. These expulsions were carried out by Serbian paramilitary groups and by the new local Serbian authorities just after the Yugoslav army left and before United Nation's troops took up their positions.

Rusyn churches in Vukovar, Mikiosevci, and Petrovci were damaged in the fighting. Many homes were pillaged, damaged, or completely destroyed. In homes temporarily abandoned, Serb newcomers were settled. The original Rusyn owners were pressured to sign papers indicating they were leaving their homes voluntarily to settle in other parts of Croatia. In the spring of 1992, Rusyns from Vukovar (April 20), Mikiosevci (May 18), and Petrovci (May 22) were robbed of money and other belongings before they were deported by bus to Croatia. The villages surrounding Mikiosevci and Petrovci are still inhabited largely by Rusyns. At present the area is under Serbian control and wartime conditions prevail. Basic necessities such as food and fuel are limited or non-existent.

Rusyns in the neighboring Vojvodina organized a relief campaign for the Rusyns in Petrovci and Mikiosevci, as well as for those forcibly resettled to other parts of Croatia. Ruski Krstur's school in 1992 provided materials to rebuild damaged village schools. The goal was to resume Rusyn-language education in Petrovci and Mikiosevci. Some students from these villages and other places were brought to the school in Ruski Krstur.

Rusyns are under various kinds of pressure to leave not only villages such as Mikiosevci and Petrovci in Serbian-controlled eastern Croatia but also to leave the Vojvodina. Serbian pressure takes various forms: pleas to repatriate national minorities: settlement of Serbian refugees in or nearby Rusyn villages: threats that Rusyns will be punished if caught celebrating Christian holidays according to the Catholic calendar; looting Rusyn churches (Bacinci) and beating priests (Bacinci, Ruski Krstur).

War has brought a drastic reduction in the standard of living. All regions in the former Yugoslavia have suffered and are much poorer as a result of the internal strife and fighting. It is feared that Rusyn amateur and professional cultural institutions may become victims of the economic drain caused by the war. The Rusyn community may be even more severely hurt than others because it is small and has no independent economic base. Signs of an impending crisis are already in evidence.

The Rusyn publishing house Ruske Slovo in Novi Sad is in a very poor financial state. Three years ago the weekly Rusyn newspaper, Ruske slovo, contained twenty pages, now it has only eight. The monthly youth journal Mak was a separate publication, now it is just a supplement to Ruske slovo. The year 1992 was the fortieth anniversary of Svetlosc, a journal for literature, culture, and the arts. From 1972 to 1991, it appeared once every two months, but in 1992, there was only enough money to publish one issue. In previous years, Ruske Slovo regularly published between ten and twenty books on poetry, prose, arts, science, and popular culture, but in 1992 the number was reduced to five.

In Croatia, the offices of the journal Nova Durnka in Vukovar have been destroyed. As a result, the publication was moved to Zagreb, and in 1992 only one issue was published as compared to four to seven issues a year before. In the last few years, the Rusyns in Croatia published two books and an annual almanac, but in 1992 no books were published.

Every year the Society for Rusyn Language and Literature in Novi Sad published a scholarly journal, Tvorcosc (in 1988 the name was changed to Studio Ruthenica), but in 1992 this journal did not appear at all. In 1991, a program where Rusyns from abroad could study in the Rusyn language in the gymnasium (high school) in Ruski Krstur was started. When war broke out later that same year, however, these foreign students were sent back home.

In former Yugoslavia, Rusyns held positions in all levels of government: the provincial (Vojvodina): the republican (Serbia and Croatia); and the federal (Yugoslavia). Now there are no Rusyns left at any level of government in either Serbia or in Croatia. Nor are there any Rusyns in upper-level management positions in major corporations, whether in communications, transport, metallurgical, energy, or other important fields. There are also no longer any Rusyn mayors in major cities, even though at one time there were mayors of Zagreb, Novi Sad, Kula, Sid and so on.

Today economic depression is all pervasive. Most Rusyns still live in rural centers and work in agriculture. High inflation and the country's disastrous economic policies have impacted negatively on agricultural communities. The largest and, until recently, the most prosperous "Rusyn" economic institution in Ruski Krstur was in 1992 split into two separate organizations. Both now are severely underfunded and have little economic power. The Rusyn print shop Ruske Slovo in Ruski Krstur cannot carry out its modernization plan and is working at a diminished capacity. A similar situation has developed in the Rusyn village of Kucura where a metal producing plant and an agricultural cooperative are in a major economic crisis. Barriers to trade have been set up by each of the republics formerly comprising Yugoslavia. Before 1991, Ruski Krstur was renowned as an exporter of paprika and sweet corn; Kucura as an exporter of agricultural seeds; Djurdjevo as an exporter of watermelons and Rusyn villages in Srem as exporters of livestock. Today Rusyns are unable to export anywhere.

Keeping the Sun on the Horizon

Rusyns have retained the heritage of their forefathers. They respect their elders. They always use the respectful plural form when speaking to their elders, or address them as uncle and aunt. Young people greet with deference their elders on the street. Children must take care of their parents in later life.

In Ruski Krstur, the school and dormitory are well cared for. much more so than in the rest of the Vojvodina. In 1992, students at this school obtained the highest grades in standardized testing. Despite their talent, Rusyn students do not get the necessary financial support in order to continue their studies at the best educational institutions, especially abroad.

In 1971, Rusyn amateur theatre was considered among the best in all of Yugoslavia. A Rusyn children's group has for many years been the best in all of Serbia. Although Rusyn theatre is staged in the Rusyn language, there are no professional directors of Rusyn background. There are some students who are interested in studying theater and film but no funds are available.

Almost all Rusyns are bilingual and many speak more than two languages. Exclusively Rusyn schools exist in Ruski Krstur, Djurdjevo, and Kucura: however, only forty percent of all Rusyn pupils are educated at these schools. Whereas the other sixty percent might be able to study Rusyn language, literature, and culture at Serbian or Croatian language schools, there is a shortage of books for such purposes, especially at the high school level. This shortage could be overcome by photocopying the required materials. None of the Rusyn schools, however, has equipment with sufficient capacity to reproduce these materials in sufficient quantities.

The Ruska Matka Society is an organization founded in 1990 and dedicated to the protection and promotion of the Rusyn heritage and culture. In addition to its other activities, the organization has set up a Rusyn Archives and the Rusyn Library, whose goal is to collect and document the lives and times of well-known Rusyn persons and institutions. Rusyn publications have never been consolidated in one location. No computer program exists in any Rusyn organization or institution which is suitable for setting up a proper reference system for such materials.

The Ruska Matka Society is also instrumental in collecting Rusyn arlwork and sculpture. A gallery will be opened shortly in Ruski Krstur. Together with the existing national museum and church museum the new gallery and library will be the only cultural center for Rusyns outside the Carpathian homeland.

From 1919 to 1941, Rusyns Financed their national cultural institutions from their own resources. During this period, the economy flourished in Rusyn communities. Rusyns were educated at well-known European universities (Prague, Berlin, Paris, and Odessa). They applied their knowledge to the advantage of their people. For example, in Ruski Krstur, electrical power was in use earlier than in some other places (1924). Ruski Krstur had its own printing press in 1936, even though at that time such presses were usually located only in large urban centers. Rusyn doctors were able not only to prescribe medicines, but many could also perform surgery. In other words, Rusyns had friends and contacts throughout the world. They had information and know-how regarding the most modern practices. Well-educated persons thus assisted their people in establishing a prosperous economy. In the Vojvodina (Backa and Srem) such traditions continue to exist. These traditions are like embers waiting to be ignited again.

Rusyns know that there is a sun above the horizon. It is necessary to blow away the clouds of war which are holding back the warm rays of the sun. Rusyns need the sun, they need a new perspective. Without the sun, the mighty oak withers. Without the sun, the Rusyn seed may still fall to the ground but it will not grow. What will be the destiny of the Rusyns along the Danube without the sun?

Remnants of the city museum at the Eltz Castle in Vukovar. Photographer in Summer 1991.

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